The ancient Roman town of Herculaneum was destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius on 24th August, 79 AD. The eruption of 79 AD obliterated the entire town of Herculaneum as well as destructing nearby town Pompeii both of which have become well-known tourist attractions. Herculaneum was lost under the destructive pyroclastic flows of volcanic ash, mud and lava until its rediscovery in early 1700’s when considerable excavation began in 1738. Herculaneum is located in modern day region of Ercolano which is situated approximately 4.35 miles (7km) to the west of Italy’s Mount Vesuvius.
Scientists have been able to extract an abundance of evidence from the numerous skeletons that were unearthed at the site of Herculaneum. Careful examinations of the skeletons suggest that even though the inhabitants of Herculaneum were able to flee from the town during the first phase of the volcanic eruption, they were killed instantly from extremely high temperatures from the pyroclastic flows during the second phase of the volcanic eruption.
Herculaneum has been associated with Greek colonists since the town is thought to be named after Hercules. It is believed that the inhabitants of Herculaneum worshiped its divine patron Hercules. Lolly Merrell reports that before the eruption of 79 AD, Herculaneum was home to approximately 5,000 citizens and was a “bustling seaport of the first-century Roman Empire” (39-42). This also supports the idea that Herculaneum was a prosperous town where the wealthy built luxurious villas (Miles 522-524). Herculaneum was smaller than neighboring town of Pompeii which was home to over 20,000 people.
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius saw successions of pyroclastic flows bury the town of Herculaneum approximately 65 feet (19.8m) deep. The volcanic matter of the pyroclastic flows cooled to form volcanic tuff that successfully preserved many structures of the town. As a result of the eruption of 79 AD, the land was dramatically altered; the shoreline was moved outwards by 437yards (400m) in the course of 24 hours.
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79AD
On 24th August, 79 AD, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum both of which were two densely populated towns located in the Bay of Naples.
One of Rome’s greatest scholars who studied natural disasters, Pliny the Elder, was lost in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Despite the loss of his uncle, Pliny the Younger sent two letters to Tacitus, a Roman historian, that included a full account of the volcanic activity during the 79 AD eruption. As reported in the book Vesuvius, A.D. 79: the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum, along with the “eyewitness report” of Pliny the Younger and the excavations from the site of Herculaneum, the sequence of events during the disaster can be determined (De Carolis and Patricelli 5).
Phase One
On the morning of August 24, inhabitants of Herculaneum noticed the first signs of volcanic activity when clouds erupted from the crater of Mount Vesuvius. By 1pm that afternoon, the Plinian phase (named in honor of Pliny) had begun. Initial explosions created a towering eruptive column of volcanic debris which rose to great heights in the atmosphere forming an enormous cloud. The deposition of the volcanic debris formed of volcanic ash and pumice during the Plinian phase is entirely dependent on the prevailing wind. Due to a prevailing south-easterly wind that day, most of the volcanic debris fell on the town of Pompeii whereas Herculaneum situated to the west of Mount Vesuvius experienced an accumulation of only a thin layer of pumice material. During this first phase, nearly all of Herculaneum’s inhabitants were able to flee from the town center towards the shore.
Phase Two
The second phase of the eruption saw pyroclastic flows, a combination of hot volcanic pumice, ash and gases, surge towards Herculaneum reaching speed of at least 160mph (100kmph). These pyroclastic flows that burst from Mount Vesuvius's flanks destroyed Herculaneum including those who were able to flee the initial Plinian phase. The pyroclastic flows buried the town of Herculaneum in "preserving material" to a depth of approximately 65 feet (19.8m) (Merrell 39-42). After early excavations, only a few skeletons were found in the town center; this supports the theory that the inhabitants escaped the initial phase of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius (Wallace-Hadrill 29).
It was only later discovered that the population had taken shelter in the boat chambers near the shore. Many skeletons have been recovered in excellent condition from the boat chambers; this is due to the way they remained tightly sealed under layer of volcanic tuff. Careful observations of these skeletons have led to conclusions that suggest extremely high temperatures from the pyroclastic flows to be the cause of death (Wallace-Hadrill 29).This differs from the cause of death from towns such as Pompeii where suffocation is deemed to have been the cause of death.
Excavation
Herculaneum was perfectly preserved under a deep layer of volcanic rock and ash for more than 1700 years. During the early 1700’s, Herculaneum was rediscovered when workmen clearing a well came across Herculaneum’s ancient theater. Looting was a major issue in the years that followed. In 1738, King Charles III of Spain purchased the land and assigned Spanish engineer Rocque de Alcubierre to start considerable excavation. However, Lolly Merrell reports that King Charles’s excavations weren’t “entirely noble,” the classical artifacts were only important additions to his “personal collection” (39-42). This resulted in many artifacts, frescoes and statues removed from the site without proper recording of their location.
In 1748, excavation at the site of Herculaneum reduced remarkably as the discovery of nearby town Pompeii attracted the workers. Digging at the site of Pompeii was easier because Pompeii was buried beneath porous ash, soft soil and pumice of only 25 feet (7.62m) deep while Herculaneum was buried under a solid mass of volcanic rock approximately 65 feet (19.8m) deep.
Skeletons
Up until 1980, it was believed that the inhabitants of Herculaneum had managed to escape the eruption of 79 AD. Joseph Jay Deiss explains how early excavation resulted in findings of less than twelve skeletons throughout the town of Herculaneum. However, in 1980, 139 skeletons: 51 males, 49 females and 39 children were uncovered in boat chambers located on the seaside.
It is believed that even though the people of Herculaneum were able to flee the town center, they were not able to escape the destructive pyroclastic flows that demolished the entire town (Wallace-Hadrill 29). Examinations of the skeletons suggest the victims died instantly from the high temperatures of the pyroclastic flows that engulfed the town. The hot gases mixed with volcanic rock flowed down the volcano at temperatures between 752-932Fahrenheit (400-500 degrees Celsius).
An extensive amount of evidence has been extracted from the remains excavated from the boat chambers by the shore. The gender and age of a large number of skeletons have been successfully identified. Other intricate details have also been observed; for example, the skeleton of a lady was found wearing gold rings which suggest she was from a high social class (Deiss 22).
Skeletons discovered in the boat chambers showed evidence of “contorted jaws and flailing positions of their arms and legs” (Deiss 22). This illustrates the victims suffering a violent death as super-heated inescapable pyroclastic flows smothered the town of Herculaneum.
Villa of the Papyri
Many luxurious villas were excavated in the vicinity of Herculaneum. The most famous being the Villa of the Papyri which was discovered in 1750 under Karl Weber’s guidance. In the Villa of the Papyri, a library was discovered to contain many philosophical writings including almost two thousand scrolls. The Villa of the Papyri has been identified to belong to Julius Caesar’s father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso. The J. Paul Getty Villa located in Pacific Palisades California is a direct replication of the Villa of the Papyri.
Issues of Conservation
The intense heat of the pyroclastic flows cooled to form volcanic tuff which effectively encased and perfectly preserved the town of Herculaneum. However, when excavations began in the early 1700’s, the remains became prone to deterioration once uncovered from under the seal of the volcanic tuff. The Herculaneum Conservation Project was established in 2001 to help the preservation of artifacts excavated as well as conserve the site of Herculaneum itself. Scientific investigations have been applied not only to excavate items but to also identify and address ongoing causes of deterioration in attempts to preserve the findings. Tourism and constant exposure to natural elements have deteriorated the site at Herculaneum and impaired the building structures. Archaeologists have proceeded intermittently to excavate the site of Herculaneum since 1961.
Bibliography
Bisel, C. “The human skeletons of Herculaneum.” International Journal of Anthropology. 6.1 (1991): 1. Google Scholar. Web. 24 June 2011.
De Carolis, Ernesto, and Giovanni Patricelli. Vesuvius, A.D. 79: the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Trust, 2003. Print.
Deiss, Joseph Jay. Herculaneum, Italy's buried treasure. New York: Harper & Row, 1985. Print.
John, Ed, and T Kirby. "Housing." Roman Republic and Empire, 264 B.C.E.-476 C.E. 3.1 (2001): 316-317. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 Jun 2011.
Merrell, Lolly. “Excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum Mark the First Systematic Study in Archeology.” Science and Its Times 4.1 (2000): 39-42. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
Miles, Margaret M. “Pompeii and Herculaneum.” Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. 4.1 (2004): 522-524. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
Sigurdsson, Haraldur, and Standford Cashdollar and Stephen R. J. Sparks. “The Eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79: Reconstruction from Historical and Volcanological Evidence.” American Journal of Archaeology. 86.1 (1982): 39-51. JSTOR. Web. 24 June, 2011.
Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. Herculaneum: past and future. London: Frances Lincoln Limited Publishers, 2011. Google Book Search. Web. 24 June, 2011.
Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. Houses and society in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Print
Herculaneum
The ancient Roman town of Herculaneum was destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius on 24th August, 79 AD. The eruption of 79 AD obliterated the entire town of Herculaneum as well as destructing nearby town Pompeii both of which have become well-known tourist attractions. Herculaneum was lost under the destructive pyroclastic flows of volcanic ash, mud and lava until its rediscovery in early 1700’s when considerable excavation began in 1738. Herculaneum is located in modern day region of Ercolano which is situated approximately 4.35 miles (7km) to the west of Italy’s Mount Vesuvius.Scientists have been able to extract an abundance of evidence from the numerous skeletons that were unearthed at the site of Herculaneum. Careful examinations of the skeletons suggest that even though the inhabitants of Herculaneum were able to flee from the town during the first phase of the volcanic eruption, they were killed instantly from extremely high temperatures from the pyroclastic flows during the second phase of the volcanic eruption.
Table of Contents
History
Herculaneum has been associated with Greek colonists since the town is thought to be named after Hercules. It is believed that the inhabitants of Herculaneum worshiped its divine patron Hercules. Lolly Merrell reports that before the eruption of 79 AD, Herculaneum was home to approximately 5,000 citizens and was a “bustling seaport of the first-century Roman Empire” (39-42). This also supports the idea that Herculaneum was a prosperous town where the wealthy built luxurious villas (Miles 522-524). Herculaneum was smaller than neighboring town of Pompeii which was home to over 20,000 people.The eruption of Mount Vesuvius saw successions of pyroclastic flows bury the town of Herculaneum approximately 65 feet (19.8m) deep. The volcanic matter of the pyroclastic flows cooled to form volcanic tuff that successfully preserved many structures of the town. As a result of the eruption of 79 AD, the land was dramatically altered; the shoreline was moved outwards by 437yards (400m) in the course of 24 hours.
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79AD
On 24th August, 79 AD, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum both of which were two densely populated towns located in the Bay of Naples.One of Rome’s greatest scholars who studied natural disasters, Pliny the Elder, was lost in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Despite the loss of his uncle, Pliny the Younger sent two letters to Tacitus, a Roman historian, that included a full account of the volcanic activity during the 79 AD eruption. As reported in the book Vesuvius, A.D. 79: the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum, along with the “eyewitness report” of Pliny the Younger and the excavations from the site of Herculaneum, the sequence of events during the disaster can be determined (De Carolis and Patricelli 5).
Phase One
On the morning of August 24, inhabitants of Herculaneum noticed the first signs of volcanic activity when clouds erupted from the crater of Mount Vesuvius. By 1pm that afternoon, the Plinian phase (named in honor of Pliny) had begun. Initial explosions created a towering eruptive column of volcanic debris which rose to great heights in the atmosphere forming an enormous cloud. The deposition of the volcanic debris formed of volcanic ash and pumice during the Plinian phase is entirely dependent on the prevailing wind. Due to a prevailing south-easterly wind that day, most of the volcanic debris fell on the town of Pompeii whereas Herculaneum situated to the west of Mount Vesuvius experienced an accumulation of only a thin layer of pumice material. During this first phase, nearly all of Herculaneum’s inhabitants were able to flee from the town center towards the shore.Phase Two
The second phase of the eruption saw pyroclastic flows, a combination of hot volcanic pumice, ash and gases, surge towards Herculaneum reaching speed of at least 160mph (100kmph). These pyroclastic flows that burst from Mount Vesuvius's flanks destroyed Herculaneum including those who were able to flee the initial Plinian phase. The pyroclastic flows buried the town of Herculaneum in "preserving material" to a depth of approximately 65 feet (19.8m) (Merrell 39-42). After early excavations, only a few skeletons were found in the town center; this supports the theory that the inhabitants escaped the initial phase of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius (Wallace-Hadrill 29).It was only later discovered that the population had taken shelter in the boat chambers near the shore. Many skeletons have been recovered in excellent condition from the boat chambers; this is due to the way they remained tightly sealed under layer of volcanic tuff. Careful observations of these skeletons have led to conclusions that suggest extremely high temperatures from the pyroclastic flows to be the cause of death (Wallace-Hadrill 29).This differs from the cause of death from towns such as Pompeii where suffocation is deemed to have been the cause of death.
Excavation
Herculaneum was perfectly preserved under a deep layer of volcanic rock and ash for more than 1700 years. During the early 1700’s, Herculaneum was rediscovered when workmen clearing a well came across Herculaneum’s ancient theater. Looting was a major issue in the years that followed. In 1738, King Charles III of Spain purchased the land and assigned Spanish engineer Rocque de Alcubierre to start considerable excavation. However, Lolly Merrell reports that King Charles’s excavations weren’t “entirely noble,” the classical artifacts were only important additions to his “personal collection” (39-42). This resulted in many artifacts, frescoes and statues removed from the site without proper recording of their location.In 1748, excavation at the site of Herculaneum reduced remarkably as the discovery of nearby town Pompeii attracted the workers. Digging at the site of Pompeii was easier because Pompeii was buried beneath porous ash, soft soil and pumice of only 25 feet (7.62m) deep while Herculaneum was buried under a solid mass of volcanic rock approximately 65 feet (19.8m) deep.
Skeletons
Up until 1980, it was believed that the inhabitants of Herculaneum had managed to escape the eruption of 79 AD. Joseph Jay Deiss explains how early excavation resulted in findings of less than twelve skeletons throughout the town of Herculaneum. However, in 1980, 139 skeletons: 51 males, 49 females and 39 children were uncovered in boat chambers located on the seaside.It is believed that even though the people of Herculaneum were able to flee the town center, they were not able to escape the destructive pyroclastic flows that demolished the entire town (Wallace-Hadrill 29). Examinations of the skeletons suggest the victims died instantly from the high temperatures of the pyroclastic flows that engulfed the town. The hot gases mixed with volcanic rock flowed down the volcano at temperatures between 752-932Fahrenheit (400-500 degrees Celsius).
An extensive amount of evidence has been extracted from the remains excavated from the boat chambers by the shore. The gender and age of a large number of skeletons have been successfully identified. Other intricate details have also been observed; for example, the skeleton of a lady was found wearing gold rings which suggest she was from a high social class (Deiss 22).
Skeletons discovered in the boat chambers showed evidence of “contorted jaws and flailing positions of their arms and legs” (Deiss 22). This illustrates the victims suffering a violent death as super-heated inescapable pyroclastic flows smothered the town of Herculaneum.
Villa of the Papyri
Many luxurious villas were excavated in the vicinity of Herculaneum. The most famous being the Villa of the Papyri which was discovered in 1750 under Karl Weber’s guidance. In the Villa of the Papyri, a library was discovered to contain many philosophical writings including almost two thousand scrolls. The Villa of the Papyri has been identified to belong to Julius Caesar’s father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso. The J. Paul Getty Villa located in Pacific Palisades California is a direct replication of the Villa of the Papyri.Issues of Conservation
The intense heat of the pyroclastic flows cooled to form volcanic tuff which effectively encased and perfectly preserved the town of Herculaneum. However, when excavations began in the early 1700’s, the remains became prone to deterioration once uncovered from under the seal of the volcanic tuff. The Herculaneum Conservation Project was established in 2001 to help the preservation of artifacts excavated as well as conserve the site of Herculaneum itself. Scientific investigations have been applied not only to excavate items but to also identify and address ongoing causes of deterioration in attempts to preserve the findings. Tourism and constant exposure to natural elements have deteriorated the site at Herculaneum and impaired the building structures. Archaeologists have proceeded intermittently to excavate the site of Herculaneum since 1961.Bibliography
Bisel, C. “The human skeletons of Herculaneum.” International Journal of Anthropology. 6.1 (1991): 1. Google Scholar. Web. 24 June 2011.
De Carolis, Ernesto, and Giovanni Patricelli. Vesuvius, A.D. 79: the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Trust, 2003. Print.
Deiss, Joseph Jay. Herculaneum, Italy's buried treasure. New York: Harper & Row, 1985. Print.
John, Ed, and T Kirby. "Housing." Roman Republic and Empire, 264 B.C.E.-476 C.E. 3.1 (2001): 316-317. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 Jun 2011.
Merrell, Lolly. “Excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum Mark the First Systematic Study in Archeology.” Science and Its Times 4.1 (2000): 39-42. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
Miles, Margaret M. “Pompeii and Herculaneum.” Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. 4.1 (2004): 522-524. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 24 June 2011.
Sigurdsson, Haraldur, and Standford Cashdollar and Stephen R. J. Sparks. “The Eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79: Reconstruction from Historical and Volcanological Evidence.” American Journal of Archaeology. 86.1 (1982): 39-51. JSTOR. Web. 24 June, 2011.
Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. Herculaneum: past and future. London: Frances Lincoln Limited Publishers, 2011. Google Book Search. Web. 24 June, 2011.
Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. Houses and society in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Print